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Pathophysiology of the Neuroregulation of Growth Hormone Secretion in Experimental Animals and the Human¹

Endocrine Section (A.G.), Department of Internal Medicine, University of Brescia, 25125 Brescia, Italy; and Division of Endocrinology (J.D.V.), Department of Internal Medicine and National Science Foundation Center in Biological Timing, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908

I. Introduction

II. Contemporary Tools for Neuroendocrinological Investigation of the GH Axis

A. Genetic, molecular, and transgenic models

B. Human GH rhythms

III. Neuropeptide Regulation of the GH Axis: Somatostatin and GHRH

A. Mechanism of somatostatin actions and its receptors

B. Human somatostatin receptor

C. GHRH

D. Feedback regulation of GH secretion

IV. Other GH-Regulating Neuropeptides

A. GH-releasing peptides (GHRPs)

B. Galanin

C. Calcitonin

D. PACAP

E. Opioid peptides

F. TRH

G. Neuropeptide Y

H. Substance P

I. Bombesin

J. Melatonin

K. Other GH secretagogues

V. Neurotransmitter Regulation of GH Secretion

A. Interspecies differences

B. Acetylcholine and catecholamines

C. Other neurotransmitters

VI. Role of Metabolic Substrates in the Regulation of the GH Axis

A. Blood glucose

B. Leptin and FFA

C. Amino acids

VII. Other Hormonal Regulators of the GH Axis

A. Glucocorticoids

B. Gonadal sex hormones

C. Thyroid hormones

VIII. Regulation of the GH Axis Throughout the Human Lifetime

A. Birth and infancy

B. Prepuberty

C. Puberty

D. Adulthood

E. Aging

F. GH treatment in older humans

IX. Exercise’s Modulation of the GH Axis

A. Experimental animals

B. Humans

C. Neural control of GH release during exercise

D. Kinetics of exercise-induced GH release

X. Summary